Beef vs. Fish and Poultry: Which One Should You Eat More Often

01- Introduction: Beef vs. Fish and Poultry

Protein is an essential macronutrient that is vital for overall health and well-being. It plays a crucial role in building and repairing tissues in the body, including muscles, organs, skin, and bones. Protein is also important for producing enzymes and hormones that regulate various bodily functions such as metabolism and immune system function.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that adults consume 10-35% of their daily caloric intake from protein sources. However, it is important to note that the quality of protein is just as important as the quantity. Complete protein sources, such as meat, contain all of the essential amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own. Plant-based protein sources, such as beans and nuts, can also be a healthy and sustainable option but may require combining different sources to ensure all essential amino acids are present.

When it comes to meat, there are two main categories: red meat and white meat. Red meat is primarily derived from mammals, such as cows, pigs, and sheep. White meat, on the other hand, is derived from poultry and fish.

Red meat is a good source of high-quality protein and essential nutrients, such as iron and vitamin B12. However, it also contains high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol. Saturated fat is a type of fat that has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and other health problems. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that a higher intake of red meat was associated with an increased risk of mortality, particularly from cardiovascular disease and cancer (Pan et al., 2012). Additionally, a meta-analysis of studies on red meat and colon cancer found that higher consumption of red meat was associated with an increased risk of colon cancer (Chan et al., 2011).

White meat, such as poultry and fish, is generally considered a healthier option as it is lower in fat and cholesterol compared to red meat. Poultry, in particular, is an excellent source of lean protein and essential nutrients such as niacin and vitamin B6. Fish is also a great source of protein and contains omega-3 fatty acids that are beneficial for heart health. However, there are also some potential drawbacks to consider when consuming white meat. For example, some people may have an allergic reaction to certain types of fish, and some poultry may contain antibiotics and hormones that were used during the animal's growth process.

It is important to note that not all types of red and white meat are equal in terms of their nutritional value and potential health risks. For example, processed meats, such as bacon and sausage, have been linked to an increased risk of cancer and other health problems (Bouvard et al., 2015). Choosing lean cuts of meat and limiting consumption of processed and red meats may help reduce the potential health risks associated with meat consumption.

Incorporating a variety of protein sources into a balanced diet is key for optimal health. While red and white meat can be a part of a healthy diet, it is important to consider the potential risks and benefits and consume them in moderation. Incorporating plant-based protein sources, such as beans and nuts, can also be a healthy and sustainable option.

References:

Bouvard, V., Loomis, D., Guyton, K. Z., Grosse, Y., El Ghissassi, F., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., ... & Straif, K. (2015). Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. The Lancet Oncology

02 - Nutritional Profile of Beef

Beef is a nutrient-dense food that provides a variety of essential nutrients, including high-quality protein, iron, zinc, vitamin B12, and other B vitamins. In this section, we will discuss the nutritional benefits of beef, as well as examine the different cuts of beef and their nutritional profiles.

High Protein Content:

Beef is an excellent source of high-quality protein, providing all the essential amino acids necessary for the growth, repair, and maintenance of the body's tissues. A 3-ounce serving of beef contains about 22 grams of protein, which is about 44% of the daily value (DV) for protein for an adult.

Rich Iron Content:

Beef is also an excellent source of iron, which is essential for the production of hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen in the blood. Iron is also necessary for the production of myoglobin, a protein that helps muscle cells store oxygen. A 3-ounce serving of beef provides about 2.1 milligrams of iron, which is about 12% of the DV for iron for an adult. The iron in beef is also more easily absorbed by the body than the iron in plant-based sources.

Different Cuts of Beef:

Beef can be divided into several different cuts, each with its own nutritional profile. Some of the most common cuts of beef include:

Ground beef: Ground beef is made from various cuts of beef and is a versatile ingredient in many dishes. However, it can vary in fat content, so it is important to choose lean or extra-lean ground beef to minimize saturated fat intake.

Chuck: Chuck is a tough cut of beef that is best when cooked slowly, such as in stews or pot roasts. It is high in fat and calories but also contains a good amount of protein and other nutrients.

Ribeye: Ribeye is a tender cut of beef that is rich in flavor and marbled with fat. While it is higher in calories and fat than some other cuts, it is also a good source of protein and iron.

Sirloin: Sirloin is a leaner cut of beef that is still high in protein and iron. It is a versatile cut that can be grilled, broiled, or roasted.

Tenderloin: Tenderloin is a very lean and tender cut of beef that is often served as a filet mignon. It is a good source of protein and iron, but also tends to be higher in price.

It is important to note that the nutritional content of beef can vary depending on factors such as the animal's diet, age, and breed, as well as the method of cooking. Choosing lean cuts of beef and limiting consumption of processed and red meats may help reduce the potential health risks associated with meat consumption.

Beef is a nutrient-dense food that provides a variety of essential nutrients, including high-quality protein and iron. The different cuts of beef have varying nutritional profiles, and it is important to choose lean cuts and prepare them using healthy cooking methods to maximize their nutritional benefits.

References:

United States Department of Agriculture. (2021). Beef, ground, 90% lean meat/10% fat, raw. Retrieved from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170148/nutrients

United States Department of Agriculture. (2021). Beef, chuck, arm pot roast, separable lean and fat, trimmed to 1/8" fat, choice, cooked, braised. Retrieved from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/172281/nutrients

United States Department of Agriculture. (2021). Beef, ribeye steak, boneless, lip-on

03 - Health Risks Associated with Beef Consumption

While beef is a nutrient-dense food that provides essential nutrients, consuming too much red meat, particularly processed and red meats, has been associated with several health risks.

Increased Risk of Heart Disease:

Studies have shown that consuming high amounts of red meat, particularly processed meats, is associated with an increased risk of heart disease. This may be due to the high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol in red meat, which can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque builds up in the arteries, reducing blood flow to the heart.

Increased Risk of Certain Types of Cancer:

Consuming high amounts of red meat, particularly processed meats, has also been linked to an increased risk of certain types of cancer, including colorectal cancer. The World Health Organization has classified processed meat as a Group 1 carcinogen, meaning it is a substance that is known to cause cancer in humans.

Role of Saturated Fat:

Saturated fat is a type of fat that is found in high amounts in red meat, particularly in cuts that are marbled with fat or that contain visible fat. Saturated fat has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease because it raises LDL cholesterol levels, which can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. Consuming high amounts of saturated fat from red meat may also increase the risk of type 2 diabetes and certain types of cancer.

Use of Hormones and Antibiotics:

Hormones and antibiotics are commonly used in beef production to promote growth and prevent disease. While these substances are approved for use by regulatory agencies, some people have raised concerns about their potential effects on human health. Hormones used in beef production have been shown to affect the levels of hormones in the body, which may increase the risk of certain types of cancer. Antibiotic use in beef production may contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can make it harder to treat infections in humans.

While beef is a nutrient-dense food that provides essential nutrients, consuming high amounts of red meat, particularly processed meats, has been associated with an increased risk of heart disease and certain types of cancer. The high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol in red meat may contribute to these risks. Additionally, the use of hormones and antibiotics in beef production may have potential effects on human health. Choosing lean cuts of beef and limiting consumption of processed and red meats may help reduce these risks.

References:

American Heart Association. (2020). Beef, processed meats and your heart. Retrieved from https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/beef-processed-meats-and-your-heart

National Cancer Institute. (2022). Red and Processed Meat and Cancer Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/red-meat-fact-sheet

Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (2021). Saturated Fat. Retrieved from https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-cholesterol/types-of-fat/saturated-fat/

Food and Drug Administration. (2021). Antibiotic Use in Food-Producing Animals. Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/antimicrobial-resistance/antibiotic-use-food-producing-animals

04 - Nutritional Profile of Fish and Poultry

Fish and poultry are both excellent sources of protein and are often considered healthier alternatives to red meat due to their lower levels of saturated fat and higher levels of certain nutrients.

Nutritional Benefits of Fish:

Fish is a great source of high-quality protein, vitamins, and minerals, and is also an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are essential for maintaining optimal health. Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to reduce inflammation, improve brain function, and lower the risk of heart disease. Additionally, fish is low in saturated fat, making it a healthier alternative to red meat. The American Heart Association recommends eating at least two servings of fish per week to maintain optimal health.

Nutritional Benefits of Poultry:

Poultry, including chicken and turkey, is also a great source of high-quality protein, vitamins, and minerals, and is lower in saturated fat than red meat. Poultry is also a good source of vitamin B6 and niacin, which are important for maintaining healthy skin, nerves, and digestion.

Types of Fish and Their Nutritional Profiles:

Different types of fish offer varying nutritional benefits. Some of the most nutrient-dense fish include:

Salmon: Salmon is an excellent source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids. It is also rich in vitamin B12, vitamin D, and selenium.

Tuna: Tuna is high in protein and omega-3 fatty acids, and is also a good source of vitamin B12 and vitamin D.

Sardines: Sardines are a good source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids, as well as vitamin D and calcium.

Trout: Trout is high in protein and omega-3 fatty acids, and is also a good source of vitamin B12 and selenium.

Mackerel: Mackerel is a great source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids, as well as vitamin B12 and vitamin D.

In conclusion, fish and poultry are both nutrient-dense foods that provide high-quality protein and essential vitamins and minerals. Fish, in particular, is an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which have been shown to provide numerous health benefits. Choosing a variety of fish and poultry and incorporating them into a balanced diet can help promote optimal health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

References:

Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (2021). Fish. Retrieved from https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fish/

American Heart Association. (2020). Poultry, Fish, and Meat. Retrieved from https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/poultry-fish-and-meat

National Institutes of Health. (2021). Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-Consumer/

United States Department of Agriculture. (2022). Nutrient Lists for Raw and Cooked Meat, Poultry, and Fish. Retrieved from https://www.nal.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fnic_uploads/meatpoultryfish.pdf

05 - Health Risks Associated with Fish and Poultry Consumption

While fish and poultry are generally considered healthy protein sources, there are potential health risks associated with consuming contaminated fish or poultry.

Health Risks Associated with Contaminated Fish:

Some types of fish, particularly large predatory fish like shark, swordfish, and king mackerel, can contain high levels of mercury, which is a toxic metal that can cause neurological and developmental problems in humans. Pregnant women, nursing mothers, and young children are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of mercury. Other contaminants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, can also accumulate in fish and pose health risks.

Health Risks Associated with Contaminated Poultry:

Poultry can become contaminated with harmful bacteria, such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, during processing or preparation. Consuming undercooked or raw poultry can cause foodborne illness, which can range from mild gastrointestinal symptoms to more severe and potentially life-threatening conditions. Additionally, the overuse of antibiotics in poultry farming can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can be difficult to treat with traditional antibiotics.

Choosing Sustainably-Sourced Fish and Poultry:

Choosing sustainably-sourced fish and poultry products can help reduce the risk of exposure to contaminants and support environmentally responsible farming and fishing practices. When purchasing fish, look for products that have been certified by third-party organizations like the Marine Stewardship Council or the Aquaculture Stewardship Council, which verify that the fish has been sourced in an environmentally responsible and sustainable manner. When purchasing poultry, look for products that have been raised without antibiotics or hormones and that have been certified by organizations like the Global Animal Partnership or the Certified Humane program, which verify that the animals have been raised in humane conditions.

While fish and poultry are generally considered healthy protein sources, it is important to be mindful of potential health risks associated with consuming contaminated products. Choosing sustainably-sourced fish and poultry products can help reduce the risk of exposure to contaminants and support environmentally responsible farming and fishing practices.

References:

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2022). Mercury in Fish. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/choose-fish-and-shellfish-wisely/mercury-fish-and-shellfish

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Salmonella. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/index.html

World Wildlife Fund. (2022). Sustainable Seafood. Retrieved from https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/sustainable-seafood

Humane Farm Animal Care. (2022). Certified Humane. Retrieved from https://certifiedhumane.org/

06 - Environmental Impact of Beef Production

Beef production is associated with a significant environmental impact, with some studies estimating that beef production is responsible for up to 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2013). This impact is primarily due to the large amounts of land, water, and feed required to raise cattle, as well as the significant greenhouse gas emissions that result from the digestive process of cattle.

One of the biggest environmental impacts of beef production is deforestation, particularly in tropical regions where forests are often cleared to make way for grazing land or to grow crops for animal feed. Deforestation can lead to soil degradation, water pollution, and a loss of biodiversity, as well as contributing to climate change by releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Another significant environmental impact of beef production is the release of greenhouse gases, particularly methane, which is produced during the digestive process of cattle. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas that is estimated to be 28 times more effective at trapping heat than carbon dioxide over a 100-year timescale (IPCC, 2013). Additionally, beef production requires large amounts of water, with some estimates suggesting that it takes up to 15,000 liters of water to produce one kilogram of beef (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2012).

Choosing sustainably-raised beef products can help reduce the environmental impact of beef production. This can include choosing beef products that have been raised on pasture rather than in feedlots, as pasture-raised cattle are generally associated with lower greenhouse gas emissions and lower water use (Heller & Keoleian, 2015). Additionally, choosing beef products that have been certified by third-party organizations like the Global Animal Partnership or the Certified Grassfed program can help ensure that the cattle have been raised in humane conditions and that the production methods are environmentally responsible.

Beef production has a significant environmental impact, with deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions being major concerns. Choosing sustainably-raised beef products can help reduce the environmental impact of beef production and support environmentally responsible farming practices.

References:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2013). Tackling climate change through livestock – A global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/i3437e/i3437e.pdf

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/

Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012). A global assessment of the water footprint of farm animal products. Ecosystems, 15(3), 401-415.

Heller, M. C., & Keoleian, G. A. (2015). Greenhouse gas emission estimates of U.S. dietary choices and food loss. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 19(3), 391-401.

Global Animal Partnership. (2022). Our Standards. Retrieved from https://globalanimalpartnership.org/our-standards/

07 - Environmental Impact of Fish and Poultry Production

Fish and poultry production also have significant environmental impacts, although they are generally less severe than those associated with beef production. Some of the environmental impacts of fish and poultry production include overfishing, habitat destruction, and water pollution.

Overfishing is a major environmental concern, particularly in the context of wild-caught fish. Many fish populations have been overexploited to the point of collapse, which can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and the people who depend on them for their livelihoods. Additionally, some fishing methods, such as trawling, can cause significant damage to marine habitats, including coral reefs and seafloor ecosystems.

Poultry production can also have significant environmental impacts, particularly in terms of water pollution. Poultry farms can generate large amounts of manure and other waste products, which can contaminate nearby waterways and cause harmful algal blooms. Additionally, the use of antibiotics in poultry production can contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can have significant impacts on human and animal health.

Choosing sustainably-raised fish and poultry products can help reduce the environmental impact of these industries. This can include choosing fish that have been certified as sustainable by organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council or the Aquaculture Stewardship Council, which ensure that fish are caught or farmed in a way that minimizes environmental impacts. Similarly, choosing poultry products that have been raised on pasture or in free-range systems can help ensure that the birds have been raised in humane conditions and that the production methods are environmentally responsible.

While fish and poultry production have less severe environmental impacts than beef production, they still have significant environmental impacts that should be considered when making food choices. Choosing sustainably-raised fish and poultry products can help reduce these impacts and support environmentally responsible farming practices.

References:

Marine Stewardship Council. (2022). Our Mission. Retrieved from https://www.msc.org/about-us/our-mission

Aquaculture Stewardship Council. (2022). Our Standards. Retrieved from https://www.asc-aqua.org/what-we-do/our-standards/

Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S., Johnston, M., ... & Zaks, D. P. (2011). Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature, 478(7369), 337-342.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2016). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf

Environment America Research & Policy Center. (2020). Caged In: The Devastating Consequences of Industrialized Chicken Production on People, the Planet, and Our Health. Retrieved from https://environmentamerica.org/feature/amc/caged

08 - Choosing the Right Meat for Your Health

A balanced diet that includes a variety of meats and plant-based proteins is important for optimal health. Meats are a good source of protein, vitamins, and minerals, but it is important to choose the right types of meat and consume them in moderation.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend consuming a variety of protein sources, including both animal and plant-based options. For meat specifically, it is recommended to consume lean sources such as poultry and fish, as well as lean cuts of red meat. It is also recommended to limit the consumption of red and processed meats, such as beef and bacon, to reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and certain types of cancer.

When it comes to choosing the right types of meat, it is important to consider factors such as the animal's diet and living conditions, as well as any added hormones or antibiotics. Choosing sustainably-raised meat can also help reduce the environmental impact of meat production.

The recommended intake of different types of meat varies depending on age, sex, and activity level. The following are general recommendations based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans:

 Adults: 5-6.5 ounces of protein foods per day, with a focus on lean sources such as poultry and fish, as well as lean cuts of red meat.

Children: 2-6.5 ounces of protein foods per day, with a focus on age-appropriate servings of lean meat, poultry, fish, and plant-based proteins such as beans, peas, and tofu.

Pregnant and breastfeeding women: 8-10 ounces of protein foods per day, with a focus on lean sources such as poultry and fish, as well as lean cuts of red meat.

It is also important to note that some individuals may have specific dietary needs or restrictions that require adjustments to their protein intake. For example, athletes or individuals with certain medical conditions may require higher protein intakes. It is always recommended to consult a healthcare professional or registered dietitian to determine individualized dietary needs.

Abalanced diet that includes a variety of meats and plant-based proteins can provide important nutrients for optimal health. Choosing lean sources of meat, consuming them in moderation, and considering factors such as animal welfare and environmental impact can help make informed food choices for a healthy diet.

References:

US Department of Health and Human Services, US Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020-2025. 9th Edition. December 2020. Available at https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/.

Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. The Nutrition Source: Protein. Available at https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/.

American Heart Association. Reducing Your Risk of Heart Disease and Stroke. Available at https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/reducing-your-risk-of-heart-disease-and-stroke.

FoodPrint by GRACE Communications Foundation. Meat and Dairy. Available at https://foodprint.org/issues/meat-and-dairy/.

09 - Choosing the Right Meat for the Environment

When it comes to making food choices, it's not just our health that we need to consider but also the impact of food production on the environment. Meat production, in particular, has a significant impact on the environment, and choosing the right meat can help reduce this impact.

One of the ways to reduce the environmental impact of meat production is to choose meats that are sustainably raised. Sustainable agriculture and aquaculture practices focus on reducing the impact of food production on the environment, while still producing high-quality and nutritious food.

Sustainable agriculture practices, for instance, aim to reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, minimize greenhouse gas emissions, and conserve soil and water resources. This can be achieved through the use of crop rotation, natural pest control methods, and the use of organic fertilizers. Sustainable agriculture practices can also involve the use of regenerative agriculture techniques, such as the use of cover crops, conservation tillage, and agroforestry.

Similarly, sustainable aquaculture practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of fish and seafood production. This can be achieved through the use of closed-loop systems that minimize water usage and reduce waste, the use of low-impact feed, and the development of fish farms in areas that have little or no impact on natural habitats.

By choosing meats that are sustainably raised, we can help reduce the impact of meat production on the environment. It's also important to remember that plant-based proteins, such as legumes and nuts, can also be a great source of protein and nutrients, and have a much lower environmental impact than meat production.

Choosing the right meat for the environment involves considering the environmental impact of meat production and opting for meats that are sustainably raised. It's also important to consider plant-based proteins as an alternative source of protein and nutrients. By making informed choices, we can help reduce the impact of food production on the environment and promote a healthier planet for future generations: 

References : 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2010). Greenhouse gas emissions from the livestock sector: a life cycle assessment. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3437e.pdf

    

United States Department of Agriculture. (2019). Agricultural Marketing Service. National Organic Program. Retrieved from https://www.ams.usda.gov/rules-regulations/organic

    

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2015). Sustainable intensification in agriculture. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/sustainability/sustainable-agriculture/en/

    

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2019). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/ca5273en/ca5273en.pdf

Greenpeace. (2016). Sustainable seafood. Retrieved from https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/oceans/sustainable-seafood/

WWF. (2021). Aquaculture. Retrieved from https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/aquaculture

10 - Conclusion: Making Informed Choices

In conclusion, this article has highlighted the nutritional benefits and health risks associated with consuming different types of meat, as well as the significant environmental impact of meat production. While red meat, such as beef, has a high protein and iron content, excessive consumption can increase the risk of heart disease and certain types of cancer. Fish and poultry, on the other hand, have lower saturated fat content and high omega-3 fatty acid content, but consumption of contaminated fish or poultry can pose health risks.

It is important to consider the environmental impact of meat production and to choose sustainably-raised products. Beef production is particularly harmful to the environment, with deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions being major concerns. Sustainable agriculture and aquaculture practices can reduce the impact of meat production on the environment.

In making informed choices, it is recommended to include a variety of meats as well as plant-based proteins in a balanced diet. The recommended intake of different types of meat varies depending on individual factors such as age, sex, and physical activity level. By considering both personal health and the health of the planet, consumers can make informed choices that promote sustainable and healthy living.

Therefore, it is important for readers to educate themselves on the potential risks and benefits of different types of meat, and to make informed choices that prioritize both personal health and the health of the planet. By doing so, individuals can contribute to a more sustainable and healthy future.

Reference

U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2020). Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020-2025. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/sites/default/files/2020-12/Dietary_Guidelines_for_Americans_2020-2025.pdf

Harvard School of Public Health. (2021). Protein. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/

National Institutes of Health. (2021). Iron. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-HealthProfessional/

American Heart Association. (2021). Red Meat and Poultry and the Risk of Heart Disease. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/meat-poultry-and-fish-picking-healthy-proteins

World Health Organization. (2015). International Agency for Research on Cancer. https://www.iarc.who.int/

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. (2021). Mercury. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/mercury/index.cfm

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2021). Sustainable food and agriculture. http://www.fao.org/sustainable-food-value-chains/en/

The Nature Conservancy. (2021). Sustainable Agriculture. https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/what-we-do/our-priorities/food-and-water/sustainable-agriculture/

World Wildlife Fund. (2021). Aquaculture. https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/aquaculture

Environmental Defense Fund. (2021). Sustainable Seafood. https://www.edf.org/oceans/sustainable-seafood